Cesare Borgia's Marriage to Charlotte D'Albret

Charlotte in "Borgia"

After Cesare Borgia finally got rid of his Cardinal's robes, it was down to him to continue on the Borgia dynasty. Since the death of his brother Juan in 1497, there was no male descended destined to carry on the Borgia name and had Cesare remained in the church then there would be no chance of the name continuing. And so, with that in mind, Cesare Borgia left Rome in October 1498 bound for France. His own mission was clear. He wanted to marry Carlotta of Aragon,  and the new French King, Louis XII had agreed to support their marriage wholeheartedly as long as Cesare helped get him a divorce from his wife, Queen Anne. 

On Fridat 17th August 1498, Cesare Borgia formally announced his decision to leave the College of Cardinal's. By 21st August, he had his way. Pope Alexander had demanded that the cardinal's voted in Cesare's favour. Indeed on the very day of the first consistory in which Cesare announced his decision, the French envoy had arrived with letters patent stating that he now had the right to call himself the Duc de Valentinois. The famous "Valentino" had arrived. 

In the months leading up to his departure for France in October 1498, Cesare spent money wildly. He was to determined to impress the French people upon arrival and made sure he would be magnificently attired at all times. This would soon change after spending time there, and Cesare would end up being the black clad dressed young man that would come to be epitomised throughout history. Not only that but he worked on his physical preparation too. He was after all to become a soldier. His preparations included bullfighting on horseback, a feat which amazed contemporary Italians at the time. Indeed it was once reported by Cattaneo that on 18th August 1498 Cesare killed 8 bulls in one sitting. There were times however when his physical prowess failed him, with one occasion ending up with him being knocked out when kicked in the ribs, head and chest after trying to jump onto the back of a mule. At the same time, Cesare was suffering with serious worries over his appearance. The early physical signs of secondary syphilis were beginning to manifest upon his face, which was disastrous for a man who was so intent on stunning the French court with his dashing good looks. It should be noted that Cesare was just twenty three years old at this point, so it must have been devastating for him. He couldn't have known that this would clear itself up within two or three months  and would have been more worried about his matrimonial prospects being affected due to his handsome face being blotched by syphilis. And whilst he showed outward confidence, he revealed his insecurities at the last moment by continuing to sign himself as Cardinal Valentinus. A precaution in case Carlotta refused him to the unsightly rash upon his face?

On 1st October 1498, Cesare took formal leave of his father and travelled to Ostia where he boarded a ship for France. And upon the day he left Rome, the diarist Cattaneo wrote:

"The ruin of Italy is confirmed...given the plans which father and son have made: but many believe the Holy Spirit has no part in them".

Cesare arrived in France in late October, departing from the shrine of Marseilles and making his way to Avignon where he met up with Giuliano della Roverre. This was a man who had always been a thorn in Cesare's side, and whilst seemingly working with him in friendship during Cesare's months in France was actually working in league with Ludovico 'Il Moro' Sforza. Della Roverre met Cesare two miles outside the city and rode into the city seemingly in complete amity. Yet they held off moving to the French court and Cesare grew restless, very likely suspicious of Della Roverre and waiting for news from Rome that would allow him to present Louis with the dispensation to allow his marriage to be dissolved. He certainly wouldn't be welcome at the French court without it. He slowly made his way northward from Avignon slowly and visited Valence, the capital of his new duchy and on 7th November made a solemn entry into Lyon. But the French were unimpressed with his ostentatiousness and people found his manner brusk and rude. When the King's envoy tried to present him with the Order of St Michael, Cesare brushed him aside and stated that he would only accept it from the King himself. 

When news of the King's divorce arrived, it was arranged that Cesare should meet the King at Chinon and on 17th December Cesare arrived in the local area. The day after Cesare's arrival, the King went hunting and met Cesare two miles outside of town. And later that day, Cesare entered the town and Castle with the King. It was the moment he had been waiting for. He could now impress the French Court and get his hands on Carlotta of Aragon. 

Cesare meeting Carlotta of Aragon in "Borgia"

The court did not stay at Chinon for long. They moved from Chinon to Blois and elsewhere. It was during his time with the moving court that he met Carlotta of Aragon for the first time. She was a lady in waiting to Queen Anne, and the meeting with Cesare can't have put him in very high spirits. She was a determined young lady and detested the idea of marrying Cesare and openly declared to the court that she had no intention of becoming known as "La Cardinala". But whilst he failed to win over his intended bride, he won over the French court and the King considered him an asset to the court. Indeed, Louis tried to convince Carlotta to marry Cesare but she remained steadfast, saying she would not marry Cesare Borgia unless her father willed it. 

When the Neopolitan envoy arrived and the issue of the marriage was pressed, the envoy replied:

"To a bastard son of the Pope, the King not only would not give his legitimate daughter, but not even a bastard child"

The King made one last effort to persuade Carlotta to marry Cesare he invited her to dine alone with him. His efforts failed and Cesare talked of leaving France to return to Rome, although this could potentially have been a way of placing pressure upon the King to find him a new bride. And find him a new bride the King did. In the early months of 1499, Louis suggested Charlotte D'Albret to Cesare and indeed Cesare wrote that she 'pleased him' greatly. He had every right to be pleased as she was said to be incredibly beautiful. Charlotte's own feelings on the matter are not recorded, but she wouldn't have had much choice in the matter after considering pressure was placed upon her by both her Father and the King. 

Charlotte in "Borgia"

Negotiations went on for over 6 weeks. Charlotte's father was determined to get as much out of the marriage as possible and demanded to see the dispensation that allowed Cesare to marry as well at the 100,00 livres promised as a dowry to be paid in ducats. By the end of April 1499 negotiations were brought to a successful end, and on 10th May the agreement was signed in front of both the King and Queen, with the King formally giving his consent to the marriage.

Cesare and Charlotte in "Borgia"

Two days later, Cesare and Charlotte were married in the Chapel of the Queen's apartments at Blois. It was followed by a huge wedding breakfast in the fields surrounding the chateau. The marriage was consummated that afternoon, and again in the afternoon. As was usual for the time there was no privacy when this happened. According to reports from the time, Charlotte's ladies spied on them through the keyhole of the bedroom door and reported a rather embarrassing incident for poor Cesare. Robert de la Marck wrote in his diary:

"To tell you of the Duke of Valentinois' wedding night, he asked the apothecary for some pills to pleasure his lady, from whom he received a bad turn for, instead of giving him what he asked for, he gave him laxative pills, to such an effect that he never ceased going to the privy the whole night, as the ladies reported in the morning"

But between running to the toilet, he did his duty and it was reported to his father in a letter that the couple consummated their marriage EIGHT times. They spent their honeymoon with the court at Blois and Cesare lavished gifts upon Charlotte. All of these gifts had been intended for Carlotta, 

Yet their time together was coming to an end. Events were taking place in Italy that needed taking care of, and Cesare wanted to hurry up with his soldierly exploits. Cesare was indeed due to accompany Louis to Italy commanding a squadron of heavy cavalry, with plans to attack Milan. At the end of July he left his wife and made to return to Italy.

Charlotte never saw her husband again. She did however bear him an heir, a little girl named Louise. And when Charlotte learned of Cesare's death in 1507 she spend the remainder of her life in mourning. Did she love him? Personally, I believe that her "love" was simply infatuation. She knew him for such a little time that he must have seemed, to use a modern comparison, like a rockstar to her. And did he return that? I do not believe he loved her, as he never made the effort to go back to her and honestly? Cesare Borgia married Charlotte D'Albret more for political reasons and to help along the relations between France and Rome. After all, if he loved her, surely he would have made more of an effort to see her once he learned she was pregnant? His efforts (there were a few) to try and persuade her were in vain. The few letters he sent to persuade her to Italy fell on deaf ears, and the King even tried to convince her. Yet she herself stayed in France, having heard stories of his exploits in Italy and not wanting to go to her husband. She died in 1514 having only spent a few months in her husband's presence, probably preferring to remember the handsome young man she had known back in 1499 rather than the impious warrior she had heard stories of. At the age of 32, she died at the Chaeau de la Motte Feuilly having spent seven years in heavy mourning for the memory of her husband.

Further Reading

Cesare Borgia: His Life & Times - Sarah Bradford

The Borgias And Their Enemies - Christopher Hibbert.

The Borgias; History's Most Notorious Dynasty - Mary Hollingsworth.

Cesare Borgia's Sword Scabbard - And A Trip To The British Museum

It's long been a dream of mine to look upon Cesare Borgia's sword and the scabbard that went with it. And when I found out that the scabbard was on display at the Victoria & Albert museum in London, I knew I had to go. Yesterday morning, after three and a half hours sleep, I got up and dragged myself and my partner off to London. Let me tell you now, wandering around London on just three and a half hours of sleep isn't a good idea, I was completely exhausted and could barely keep my eyes open. But then, when we got to the Victoria & Albert and saw the scabbard; everything was worth it.

When I saw it, I will admit that I squeaked rather loudly. I'd say it was embarrassing but really, I honestly didn't care. And it seemed to amuse the gallery attendant as I knelt in front of the case examining this beautiful artifact and wiped away my tears. Now I know you'll all think me incredibly sad but sitting in front of this beautiful piece of leather work made me really emotional - the thought that this had been made for Cesare Borgia, and that he had likely held it in his hands was just completely overwhelming. Some will wonder why I get so emotional over a man who had been so ruthless, but having studied him and his family for so long I have the utmost respect for the man who was so ruthless that he took over the whole of the Romagna with ease, yet loved his family more than life itself (But not in THAT way!). And seeing it there, something that was his, something that belonged to a man who I have found interesting for so long and read so much about, it was just simply amazing.

The scabbard itself is beautifully decorated:

Image from the Victoria & Albert Museum

On the front there are a number of images. At the top you can see a triumphal arch, under which a group of worshippers sacrifice a ram to either Venus or the Goddess of Peace. At the top of the Triumphal Arch there is an inscription in Latin: "Materium Superabit Opus" which means "Toil will tame the material" - a motto which really fits Cesare, the man who overtook the Romagna with ease, and tamed the people of each city he took over by being both ruthless and fair (Read The Prince by Machiavelli to understand exactly how this worked with Cesare). Beneath this you can see an Imperial Eagle, flanked with scrolls. This points back to Cesare's respect and love for his namesake Caesar (Julius Caesar). The Imperial decoration continues and you can see where it was marked out however this was unfinished. On the reverse, not easily seen in the museum, there are the monograms of Caesar as well as groups of three flames which was the personal impressa of Cesare. There is also a damaged coat of arms (very likely the Borgia coat of arms) flanked by cupids and the Goddess of Peace. 

Image from the Victoria & Albert Museum

The symbolism on the scabbard blew me away. Each image would have been placed there to reflect the mindset of its owner, that mindset being of the ruthless Cesare Borgia. I was completely stunned by the amount of Imperial imagery on the sword, reflecting the personal motto of Cesare; "Aut Caesar, Aut Nihil" - he had the utmost respect for Julius Caesar, and it seems almost hero worshipped him; from all my readings on Cesare it really seems as though he aspired to the same level of brilliance as Caesar.

I wish I could have spent more time with the scabbard, examining it in detail. Unfortunately, due to how fragile the piece is it would have been impossible to handle it (and I did ask when I emailed the museum a few months back). You can really see how fragile it is when you look at it, the back is split, as is the top, and this is likely why it was unfinished. During my research I found something interesting - after it was brought by the museum in 1869 it was described in a report to the Science and Art board as the "finest piece of art in leather ever known" and I can really see now how true that is. I don't think I've seen such a beautiful piece of leather work! Alas, due to what is likely a defect in the leather (the splits in the back) it never would have been worn by Cesare - had it been, it would have been a ceremonial scabbard. As he was a nobleman, Cesare would have worn a sword at most times (his sword, inscribed with his motto is currently in Rome), and such lavishly decorated scabbards would have been a usual sight in the noble courts of Rome. What's funny about this though is that the scabbard suits the shorter blade of the Cinquedea sword, which was a sword much more suited to combat - and indeed his sword is a short bladed Cinquedea. Is this Cesare once more showing the people that he's not a man to be messed with in any situation? It's certainly interesting to think about, I only wish that I could have found a little more information on this piece in the museum book shop. Alas, I could find nothing - I'll have to keep trawling online!

Looking a little emotional there...

After tearing myself away, ever so emotional, we decided to head to the British Museum for the afternoon. After a rather nice lunch in the little pub just opposite the museum we headed over there, and as we were walking in we spotted musician Gareth Malone! I think I might have scared him a little when I squeaked "It's that bloke from the telly!" - we didn't stop him, instead I stuck my head down and shuffled past embarrassed. Oops. 

Below are a few photos of my favourite pieces from the British Museum:

The Rosetta Stone - I spent a while stood here, explaining to my partner just how important this artifact is.

This beautiful statue of Venus once belonged to Sir Peter Lely (court painter of Charles II)

This isn't a very good picture, but this is basically a carved piece of Ivory dating to the thirteenth century. It shows images of the Passion, and Christ's crucifixion.

These are little reliquary boxes dating to the C13/14 - build to hold tiny relics such as sherd's of the True Cross, or a Holy Thorn.

The famous image of Christ from Hinton St Mary. Behind him you can see the Chi-Ro symbol, an early symbol of Christianity.

Ginger, the predynastic mummy. I love this guy, having spent a lot of time researching him at University. He's basically a natural mummy, the heat of the sand from his grave naturally dessicating his skin and giving him remarkable preservation.

Pieces from the Sutton Hoo ship burial.

Turquoise snake from the Aztec exhibition.

All in all, a fantastic day. And I might have spent a fortune in the B.M book shop. Oops!

Cesare's scabbard is currently on display in Room 62 of the Victoria & Albert Museum, South Kensington, London.

The Death of Cesare Borgia

Cesare Borgia

506 years ago today, one of the greatest military commanders that Italy had ever seen was killed at the Siege of Viana. On 12th March 1507, Cesare Borgia rode to his death following a life of extraordinary feats - son (possibly, please see this post for more information on that) of a Pope, the first man ever to resign from the College of Cardinals, Gonfalonier and commander of the Papal armies; he died as he had spent most of the final years of his life, alone. As I'm sure many of my readers are aware, I have the greatest respect for Cesare Borgia and am a huge advocate of dismissing the terrible rumours that surround his life - and so today I will write about his death, the circumstances surrounding it and how its wider effects.

Sergio Peris-Mancheta as Cesare in Los Borgia

Having escaped from his imprisonment in Spain, Cesare headed to Navarre where he joined forces with his father in law Jean D'Albret. There, he spent his time fighting with Jean and helping the King of Navarre besiege various towns. There is a fantastic story in which an old man remembered Cesare passing through the town of Mendigorria at the head of a massive army. The old man spoke of how Cesare was, "a big man, strong, handsome, and soro" (Soro is an untranslatable word used to describe young falcons). It is said that Cesare carried a particular weapon which is incredibly unusual, but mentioned many times by other chroniclers who described Cesare's time in Navarre - a short, thick, double pointed lance. Cesare Borgia, a man who had been imprisoned and suffered great hardship since 1503, was back in the saddle and at the height of health and fitness.

During the first week of March, Cesare joined up with King Jean of Navarre at the town of Viana. The plan was to besiege and take the town from Luis de Beaumonte, a man who held the town on behalf of the Spanish monarchs. Considering as how this town was in the kingdom of Navarre, King Jean wanted the town back in his control and Cesare, the man who had made the Romagna fall to his knees, would have found the town and its castle an easy target. It seems however that Cesare was overconfident and the wariness he was so famous for when it came to warfare had relaxed. In a way, the events of the next few days were somewhat inevitable, given the overconfidence of Borgia, and the lack of experience he had in commanding a fully trained army rather than paid mercenaries.

Mark Ryder as Cesare in Borgia: Faith & Fear

On the night of 11th March, Cesare withdrew his troops into the safety of the town due to a harsh rainstorm. He didn't think that Beaumonte would attack during such bad weather, but this was a mistake and Beaumonte had been waiting for Cesare to make such a move. Under the cover of darkness, Beaumonte lead mules into the town - they were loaded with flour and bread and escorted by 200 lances. They entered the castle unnoticed. At dawn the next day, they noticed a body of cavalry approaching and thought they were reinforcements and so raised their cry. As the words "Beaumonte, Beaumonte!" were cried, the alarm was raised in the town.

Despite the confusion, Cesare leapt onto his horse dressed in light armour and rode out of the town with seventy horseman and his squire, Grasica. He left a note for King Jean to follow. Accounts of what happened during the next few hours conflict quite a lot, but it seems as Cesare galloped out of the Solana gate his horse slipped in the mud and almost fell. Cesare gained control of the horse and rode out of the town shouting:

"Where is he, this little Count?"

Cesare out rode his men, and caught sight of the Beaumonte soldiers as they were retreating to where Beaumonte waited for them. And Cesare Borgia, who had out ridden his men, did not realise he was alone. And as Beaumonte observed the lone horseman galloping forward with his unusual double pointed lance, he sent forward three of his best knights. These men included Garcia de Agreda and Pedro de Allo as well as some foot soldiers. These men waited in ambush, and as Cesare approached they fell upon him. As Cesare raised his arm to strike, Ximenes Garcia stabbed him with a lance under the arm, at the point unprotected by his armour.

Cesare fell from his horse, mortally wounded, yet he still had hold of his lance. He fought desperately, something that is shown fantastically in the Spanish movie "Los Borgia", but it wasn't long until he fell, completely overwhelmed by his attackers.

Cesare's death: Los Borgia

Cesare's death: Los Borgia

Cesare's death: Los Borgia

As he lay there, dead of his wounds, Cesare Borgia was stripped of his armour and left there naked and bleeding. One of the men, it is unknown which, had the decency to cover his genitals with a rock. Later, when his body was examined, at least twenty five stab wounds were found. It was just three days short of the Ides of March when he died, the day that had proven to be fateful to his hero Caesar. It seems that the men who attacked him were completely unaware that it was Cesare Borgia whom they had killed. Cesare's squire, Juanito grasica was found desperately searching for his master and when he was shown the armour that was taken, he burst into tears. It was at that moment that the attackers realised who they had killed. Beaumonte erupted in a rage. He had lost a valuable prize, for the price that was on the head of Duke Valentino alive was a high one. But nothing could be done, and so Beaumonte lead the squire to where Cesare's corpse lay. King Jean of Navarre had Cesare's body carried to Viana.

Cesare Borgia, Duke of Valentinois and the Romagna; ex cardinal and son of Pope Alexander VI was buried in the parish church of Santa Maria in Viana. He was just thirty one when he was killed, and by the time of his death had achieved more than most men of his age ever had. He was buried in an elaborate marble tomb with the inscription:

"Here, in a scant piece of earth, lies he whom all the world feared"

It has since been suggested that Cesare deliberately rode out to his death in a sort of suicidal charge. Historians have previously argued that it was the syphilis that made him do this, that it had affected his brain so much that it made him go mad. However, Bradford has argued that by the time of his death it is more than likely that he was cured of the disease thanks to the malarial fever that he suffered in 1503. Plus, the final stages of syphilis can take up to 25 years to appear, and when he died in 1503 it would have been just 9 years since he first contracted the disease. There is also no evidence of madness in the lead up to his death. Had Cesare given up hope and ridden to his own death? It is unlikely for even under the bleakest of circumstances he had never lost hope. So why should he have done so now? Yet it is impossible now to arrive at the real reasoning behind his death - had he just gotten carried away and ridden out faster than his men, or had he indeed gone mad? Was he bored of being stuck in a little war which he believed meant nothing? Indeed, Cesare died alone - mostly as he lived. He had spent so many years fighting the odds and succeeding, and he may well have succeeded here - for he had a huge sense of his own destiny and of fortuna. He had such a lust for power and was prepared to sacrifice everything to succeed. Yet despite his single handed desire to succeed, and to rule, he failed. He was blessed with his desire to succeed, he was ruthless and in many ways amoral but in the same way he was also bordering on genius. And had he lived, he could have ruled the whole of Italy, if not the world.

There were not many who mourned Cesare's passing. The main few were the three women in his life: Charlotte D'Albret, Lucrezia Borgia and Vanozza Cattanei. Charlotte ended up spending the rest of her life in mourning, dressing in black and replacing the decorations of her home with black hangings. Lucrezia also sank into a massive mourning process - the two had been exceptionally close and been subject to horrific rumours that they had been lovers. His mother, Vanozza, also mourned him deeply. Cesare had always respected his mother greatly and after his death ended up contributing charitably to various religious institutions - so much so that Pope Leo X, Cesare's fellow student at the University of Pisa, demanded that his entire court attend her funeral.

Cesare's body was moved outside the church of Viana after the Bishop of Calahorra destroyed his tomb. His body remained under a pavement until 27 August 1945 when a grave was opened in front of the steps of the church. There, a human body was found - it was incomplete and mixed with the bones of a child as well as domestic animals. The body was lifted out and the bones examined. Experts deduced that the skeleton was of a man aged between twenty five and forty years of age, and had lain in its grave for at least two hundred years. The bones showed clear evidence of a wound at least two centimetres in diameter which had happened while the man was still alive. It was deduced that the skeleton did indeed belong to Cesare Borgia, the lance wound fitting to the stories of his death. Shoulder wounds were also found on the skeleton, which fitted to his fall from when he escaped La Mota. In 1953, the bones were reinterred inside the church in Viana with considerable ceremony, permission having been given for Cesare Borgia's reburial.

Cesare Borgia, if indeed the bones do belong to him, was reburied in front of the main door of the church of Santa Maria. Above his grave lies a simple slab reading "Cesar Borgia, Generalisimo of the Navarrese and Pontifical armies died in the fields of Viana 12 March 1507". There he lies to this day, his simple grave still able to be viewed by the curious tourist. Next to the church is a bronze bust of Cesare which stands in the middle of a little park next to the church in Viana.

Cesare Borgia died alone, just three short days before the death of his hero, Caesar. Yet he lived by his motto "Aut Caesar, Aut Nihil", and it really rings true in the lead up to his death. "Either Caesar, Or Nothing". Whilst many still believe Cesare Borgia to be the big, bad villain; if you study his life in depth he really wasn't the monster that many still make out. 

Rest in peace Cesare Borgia, duca de Valentinois é la Romagna. I shall raise a glass of wine to you this evening.

Further Reading

Sarah Bradford: Cesare Borgia - His Life & Times

Christopher Hibbert: The Borgias & Their Enemies

Paul Strathern: The Artist, The Philosopher & The Warrior

Sarah Bradford: Lucrezia Borgia

Mary Hollingswoth: The Borgias - History's Most Notorious Dynasty

Looking back: 7th February 1497 - The Bonfire of the Vanities

Today, in 1497: Girolamo Savonarola organised one of the most infamous moments in Renaissance history - the Bonfire of the Vanities. Here's an old post I wrote on the subject...

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Savanarola by Fra Bartolomeo

Giralomo Savonarola is probably one of the most famous people from Renaissance Italy, next to the Borgia and Medici families. He is best known as the preacher who fundamentally ruled Florence with his sermons, and the man who was behind one of the greatest atrocities in Renaissance history: The Bonfire of the Vanities. As a man, Giralomo Savonarola is fascinating and I will be doing a piece on him and his life in more detail soon. Today however, I wanted to do a brief post on the Bonfire of the Vanities - an event in which the supporters of Savonarola piled up all manner of famous works of art, books and fine clothing...and burned the lot.

Painting of Savonarola's execution, in the same spot where he had started the Bonfire of the Vanities

It was Lent, 1497. Giralomo Savonarola had already been ruling the city of Florence for many years, preaching to the people and almost brainwashing them into believing that their extravagant life's were sinful. He regularly packed out the Santa Maria del Fiore, famous for it's massive dome built and finished by Brunelleschi in 1469, where he delivered rousing sermons against the extravagant clothes and art that the Florentine people were famous for.

At the start of Lent Savonarola sent a band of innocents around the city to collect up what he called 'vanities'. These innocents, known as the 'blessed innocents' were groups of children who up until then had walked around the city dressed in robes of purest white and singing the praises of God. They had previously been barred from a number of streets in the city when it became apparent that some Florentine's didn't actually support the friar. However this time they had armed guards with them and every vanity that they could get their hands on were piled into a huge pyramid in the middle of the Piazza della Signoria (as seen in the painting above of Savonarola's eventual execution, but this will be covered in more detail in later posts).

At the very bottom of the pyramid were items such as wigs, false beards, pots of rouge that women used to redden their cheeks and perfumes. On top of that were books that Savonarola and his followers considered to be 'Pagan' - these were all important historical works from Greek philosophers, books of poems by Ovid and Petrarch, works by Cicero. Next came paintings, drawings and bust sculptures of subjects considered profane. Included among these were works by the famous Sandro Boticelli, who is said to have been a follower of Savonarola and abandoned his paintings to follow the friar. Next were musical instruments, sculptures and paintings of naked women. And right at the very top of the pyramid were sculptures of Greek Gods and mythical legends. This was then finalised by an effigy of Satan, reigning over these sinful items. It is said that this model of Satan was given the face of a Venetian man who had offered to buy the items for 22,000 florins. This can only hint at the worth of all the items together, and I can only imagine that such works of art were worth much, much more.

The Palazzo Veccio, Florence.

The bonfire was lit on Shrove Tuesday, 7th February. As the entire signoria assembled from the balcony of the Palazzo Veccio, flames began to lick up the pyramid which by now was now over sixty feet high, and the crowds surrounding the massive bonfire singing a Te Deum.

This event divided Florence even more than it already was. The people were turning against Savonarola, and Piero de Medici ended up leaving Florence and heading to Rome where he received the blessing of Pope Alexander VI to lead an army against the city. Yet even as the army approached, the majority of Florentine citizens did not want to return to Medici rule (they had been ousted from the City during the early part of Savonarola's "rule"). Piero returned to Rome, not as the victor he envisaged.

Savonarola's reign of religious tyranny (for want of a better word), would start to decline in June 1497 when Pope Alexander VI issued a papal bull excommunicating him from the Roman Catholic church. Yet when Savonarola continued to preach in the Santa Maria del Fiore, the signoria tried to ban him from preaching and riots occasionally broke out.

His reign would not come to an end until 1498 when he was arrested and made to prove that he had a special relationship with God. When he failed he was jailed in the Bargello before being tortured and eventually executed. But that's for a different post.

For now, all I can do is feel the huge loss of so many works of art lost to Savonarola's flames. This really was a crime against the art that was created during the renaissance, and from my reading of Savonarola I have to wonder how anyone could condone doing something like that? A crime yes, but certainly a very interesting event in the history of both the fascinating man and the beautiful city of Florence.

Further reading

Donald Weinstein, Savanarola: The Rise and Fall of a Renaissance Prophet.
Lauro Martines, Scourge and Fire: Savanarola and Renaissance Italy
Paul Strathern, The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance
Paul Strathern, The Artist, The Philosopher and the Warrior
Paul Strathern, Death In Florence: The Medici, Savanarola and the Battle for the Soul of the Renaissance.
Christopher Hibbert, The Borgias and their Enemies

Cesare Borgia's Spanish Imprisonment

The castle of Chinchilla, Spain

Towards the end of 1503, after the death of his father and a particularly virulent illness, Cesare Borgia found himself faced with the election of one of his family's worst enemies as Pope. Giuliano della Roverre was elected to the chair of St Peter's in the October of 1503 and took the name of Pope Julius II. And Cesare had a decision to make - was he to support the new Pope, or would he continue with the enmity? Indeed, Borgia made a last minute decision during the conclave of 1503 to support della Roverre's election as Pope which he has received criticism for by many both at the time but there really wasn't much he could have done; the majority of the cardinal's in the conclave supported della Roverre and even had Borgia tried to block his election, it would have had little to no effect at all. Cesare tried to make a sensible move, extract promises out of the man who would be Pope before his election to ensure his safety and to keep hold of his lands and titles, knowing that della Roverre was a man who kept to his word.

It was probably the biggest mistake that Cesare Borgia ever made.

In the early months of his reign as Pope, Julius made an outward show of cordiality towards Cesare which the young Duke Valentino took at face value, needing to believe that every word Julius spoke was sincere. And to start with it seemed as if Cesare had made the right decision as two days after his election, Julius wrote to the people of Faenza asking them to obey Cesare as their leader. Cesare believed that the Pope was desperate to recover the states of the Romagna, to bring them back into the Papal fold after all hell had broken lose during Cesare's illness - and more importantly Cesare still held several key fortresses in the Romagna, which he knew would be incredibly important to the Pope. Borgia believed that this would keep him safe, and in the Pope's good books. Moreover, the people who lived in the towns where Cesare still held onto his fortress were still loyal to him. He began to make plans to leave for the Romagna as soon as Julius has reinvested him as Gonfalonier of the Papal armies. Julius, however, held back - he knew Cesare could easily cause a lot of trouble for him despite the fact he was considered as one of the greatest soldiers of the time. And by the second week of November 1503, Cesare began to notice that Julius' attitude towards him was hardening.

On the 11th November, in an interview with Giustinian, it became all too clear exactly how Julius felt towards Cesare Borgia and the Romagna:

"We do not wish that he [Cesare] should persuade himself that we will favour him, nor that he shall have even one rampart in the Romagna, and although we have promised him something, we intend that our promise should extend only to the security of his life and of the money, and goods which he has stolen".

As the political sands began to shift and fall away beneath his feet, the situation began to take its toll on his mental state - something which had never been all that stable to begin with. During a meeting with Cesare in the first week of November, Niccolo Machiavelli found a completely different man to the man he had known in the Romagna. Cesare Borgia was now uncertain of himself, no longer self controlled or masterful and would burst into fits of bitter, hysterical anger. According to Machiavelli, he burst out on a tirade against Florence, blaming the Florentines for not supporting him and said that Florence would be ruined and he would laugh at the city when it fell - Machiavelli recorded that, "He went on at length with words full of poison and anger".

On 9th November, Julius confirmed to Cesare that he would be re-investing him as Gonfalonier yet despite promising Cesare that he would bring it up in the consistory, he didn't say a word. Hiding his disappointment, Cesare began getting his troops together to leave for the Romagna. He had his troops and began trying to sort out safe conduct for him and his army. He needed safe conduct through Florence, but Florence were seriously terrified of the famous Valentino and had vowed never to let him into Tuscan territory ever again following his previous behaviour. They refused him safe conduct, and he received the news on the 14th and finally began to realise that Florence and Julius were working against him. The bubble of hope he had built up around himself was now completely shattered, and he fell into one of his famous depressions and it is likely that he had a serious breakdown - men who saw him during that period noticed the change in him. His own friend, the Cardinal of Elna told an envoy, "he believed the Duke to be out of his mind: not knowing what he wanted to do, he was confused and irresolute". It is said to that at this point, when Machiavelli heard about it, he wondered whether he had been wrong about Cesare Borgia all along, and asked whether the image of the strong Duke Valentino had been nothing more than a mirage and that he could not decide, "whether he was so by nature or whether these blows from Fortune have stunned him, and since he in unaccustomed to receive them, his mind is confused". Indeed his behaviour in another interview with Machiavelli only proved his fragile state of mind. Cesare raged against Machiavelli, threatening Florence with employing all the friends he had left to do the city harm.

The once confident Duke was now on a road that he saw no other way of getting out of, blundering his way down it because he could see no other way out. He needed to get to the Romagna, and had already sent his cavalry ahead through Tuscan territory despite not having safe conduct. Without self conduct, the way through Tuscany was blocked to him and that route was the only feasible way to get there across land and he certainly couldn't go through Urbino. The best idea would have been to stop planning altogether, but he didn't. He hadn't given up his will to fight and couldn't bear to think of letting go of his lands in the Romagna. And so, he made the decision to make the trip by sea, and thus headed to Ostia.

Yet as he was there waiting to take his boat, news reached Rome that made Julius realise the Romagnol lands needed to be placed into the hands of the church. Faenza had fallen to the Venetians, and the Pope needed those lands in his control. On 21st, a message was sent to Cesare ordering him not to leave and on 22nd Cardinal's Soderini and Remolines arrived in Ostia, demanding that Cesare give up his fortresses. Cesare, of course, refused - it threw Julius into one of his famous rages and he sent a message demanding Cesare's arrest.

By 29th November, Cesare was back in Rome under heavy guard. He was lodged in the apartments that had once been his own (now the famous Raphael rooms) and it was to be the start of a long game of cat and mouse in which Julius would demand Cesare's fortresses and Cesare would refuse. On 1st December, Cesare received news that his executioner Micheletto had been arrested and the news broke Cesare, destroying his hopes and his will to resist anything else - he even turned to Guidobaldo de Montefeltro, one of his long term enemies in his desperation to find a friend. In a meeting between the two, Cesare fell to his knees before Montefeltro, cursing his father for making him take the duchy of Urbino and Montefeltro raised Cesare to his feet embracing him kindly. Cesare promised to return the goods stolen from Urbino and also handed over the passwords to some of his castles in the Romagna. In return, Cesare got promises from the Pope of his liberty. This never happened. Instead he was kept to his apartments, and his enemies swarmed around him, demanding reparations for all the damages he had done to them.

On 20th December, after Julius flew into another of his rages, Borgia was locked in the famous Torre Borgia. This must have been a bit of a blow to Cesare as the very rooms he was locked in were the ones in which he had ordered Alfonso D'Aragona to be strangled. Cesare was thrown into the Torre due to Diego Ramires refusing to hand over the castle of Cesena. Ramires sent a message to the Pope, saying that as long as Cesare was imprisoned, they would never hand the castle over to his enemies. Despite being thrown into the Torre, Cesare had regained his mental composure and he kept his courage in the face of his imprisonment. His courage impressed those who guarded him, and they reported that he remained cheerful as he watched his friends and servants spending their days gambling. His composure was impressive and it showed his determination not to give up in the face of adversity; a strength of character he would show in the years of his imprisonment. This strength of character inspired devotion and loyalty in the men who were close to him, not only in his imprisonment but also when he was a free man. Despite how dangerous he was, despite how much he was hated and feared; those close to him never deserted him. He even had loyalty that stayed from his friends the Spanish cardinals, who stood by him during the papal election. Two days after he was imprisoned in the Torre Borgia, the cardinals went to the Pope to petition for Cesare's release, pointing out that if Cesare were free the keepers of the castles in the Romagna may be more inclined to hand them over. The pope of course refused.

By 18th January the Spanish cardinals came to an agreement with the Pope. In exchange for Cesare's freedom, his castles in the Romagna would be given over to the Pope within 40 days. Within the next few weeks, due to Julius not wanting Cesare free but wanting the castles and Cesare's desperation to be free, the arrangements changed somewhat. On 10th March 1504 Cesare agreed to surrender the castles of Cesena and Bertinoro as well as paying the castellan of Forli 15000 ducats to give up the Rocca di Ravaldino. Yet Cesare did not intend to give up Forli quite yet as it contained incredibly valuable goods that he didn't trust the Pope would give back to him. And as news reached Ostia of the surrender of Cesena and Bertinoro (before Rome, as it was intended it would), Cesare's custodian Carvajal had arranged ships and safe conduct from Gonsalvo de Cordova to carry Cesare to Naples; and Carvajal released Cesare from the Torre Borgia before permission from the Pope had been formally given.

Despite the Spanish ships being detained at Naples, Cesare wasn't prepared to wait. He wanted out. On 19th April 1504 he rode from Ostia to Nettuno where he got on a small rowing boat and he rowed until he reached a point 30 miles from Naples. There, he got out of the boat and rode the rest of the way on horseback. On the 28th, he arrived in Naples and stayed at the house of Cardinal Ludovico Borgia. Despite another flare up of his syphilis, Cesare was finally free and began making plans. He sent letters asking for men, recruited men and cavalry and on 26th May Cesare went to the Castel Nuovo in Naples to take his leave from Gonsalvo de Cordova. That night, as he made ready to leave, one of Cordova's men announced that he was under arrest.

In surprise and disbelief he cried out, "Santa Maria! I am betrayed! With me only has my Lord Gonsalvo dealt cruelly!"

Cesare, being arrested at the Castel Nuovo in Los Borgia

Cesare, imprisoned in Spain, in Los Borgia

Cesare had been deceived. And deceived by the man he had likely least expected to deceive him. He had trusted de Cordova, and been incredibly naive in doing so. Cordova was known as a man of honour and Cesare had set great store in that. De Cordova however was working for the Spanish Queen Isabella - the Spanish monarchs needed a dispensation from the Pope so their daughter could marry the future King Henry VIII of England and also wanted their investiture as monarchs of Naples. Cesare Borgia, a man whom the Pope feared above all others, would therefore be incredibly useful to them. If they had him in their grasp, a mere threat to put Borgia into play would bring the Pope to heel. It would also keep him out of French hands. And so, Cesare found himself once more behind bars and placed in a small cell known as "The Oven" - while at the same time in Rome, Micheletto underwent torture where he was questioned on the deaths of Alfonso D'Aragona and Juan Borgia. Yet Micheletto gave nothing away and implicated the now dead Pope Alexander, thus shielding his master. Yet all the while through June, as he was held in "The Oven", he still refused to give up Forli until he finally relented on 11th August. He had been promised liberty in return for giving up Forli, but he did not get it. Within a few days he was placed on a ship bound for Spain, in the charge of Prospero Colonna and with only a pageboy for company.

By the end of September 1504, Cesare Borgia found himself imprisoned in the Castle of Chinchilla, 700 feet up in the mountains of Valencia. As can be seen from the picture at the start of this post, the castle is surrounded by a sheer drop. It was incredibly doubtful that Borgia would be able to escape from there. Here he was placed in incredibly strict confinement with just his page for company. It was whispered while he was there that Ferdinand and Isabella were planing to put him on trial for his life, to answer for the murders of his brother Juan and his brother in law Alfonso D'Aragona. But why would he be put on trial for the murder of his brother when his guilt had never been proven? The answer was simple - his sister in law, Maria Enriques de Luna was a favourite at the Spanish court and believed in Cesare's guilt. In short, Cesare was completely alone - he couldn't even get help from France. The King of France, angry at Cesare for his betrayal in his last  military campaign, stripped Cesare of his titles. No longer was he the Duke of Valentinois nor the Lord of Issoudon. And due to the fact the French had signed a peace treaty with Spain over Naples, he couldn't hope to play them off against each other with that. Cesare Borgia was no longer useful. Yet his friends at home had not forgotten him - his sister Lucrezia and his brother in law Jean D'Albret bombarded the Spanish sovereigns to beg for his release. Whilst they were not successful in getting him his freedom, they did succeed in gaining him a little more comfort - he was allowed extra servants and a slightly better set of rooms. Reports reached Italy that Cesare was only being held for the things De Cordova had accused him of (the murders), and when these were proven to be untrue he would be released. But things would have to wait until Queen Isabella regained her health.

News reached Italy in Early 1505 that Cesare had attempted to escape, and the stories are rather colourful! He was now under even stricter confinement due to his attempted escape, and the story goes that he invited the governor of the castle to join him on the ramparts outside his room. Whilst the governor was pointing out landmarks, Cesare attacked him and tried holding his arms and threatened to throw him off the tower. Due to his long imprisonment, Cesare's strength failed and he was pinned to the ground. Other stories involve tales of Cesare knotting sheets together and climbing out of the window. Alas the sheets were too short, and he fell to the ground, fracturing his shoulder! Once he was found, he was carried back inside where he placed under even stricture surveillance.

La Mota, Medina Del Campo - Spain

La Mota, showing the Torre in which Cesare was imprisoned and escaped from.

In midsummer, 1505, Cesare was moved to the famous castle of La Mota in Medina del Campo and imprisoned in the main keep of Torre de Homenaje. This famous keep was basically a maximum security prison and it was thought that no one could ever escape its walls. They would eventually be proven wrong. While he was there, according to a Venetian report, he spent his time watching the falcons out of his window. Queen Isabella had died not long before - was he thinking of a way he could turn it all to his advantage? It is incredibly likely and indeed, it wasn't long before he started playing the game of politics again. He became involved in the struggle between King Ferdinand and his son is law; and was far from a helpless pawn and he watched, biding his time and choosing his side. Indeed, knowing that he could easily be handed back over to the Pope, he stayed in close contact with Ferdinand's party and played an active part in an intrigue between the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian, and his brother in law Jean D'Albret, King of Navarre. Cesare Borgia was playing the game of politics, choosing his side carefully and plotting how he would gain his freedom. His aim was simple: Get himself handed over to the King of Navarre, to his brother in law. And he knew if his plan was to succeed then he must put it into immediate action.

Cesare knew that a man by the name of Bernadino de Cardenas was desperate to integrate himself with Ferdinand, and had intimated to the envoy Ferrer that he was now willing to hand over Cesare. Ferrer had agreed in principle but said he must write to Ferdinand and find out what the King wishes to do with his prisoner. Cesare knew this was his best chance of freedom, and that his future with Maximilian and Jean were his last change for power and the destiny he so desperately believed was his. Yet if he waited until Ferdinand's orders reached La Mota, his chance could be lost forever.

So he planned the impossible.

He would escape from La Mota.

The plan was to follow the same lines as his abortive escape attempt from Chinchilla but much more carefully prepared. Cesare had even managed to talk around one of the servants into getting hold of the ropes for him. And on the evening of the 25th October 1505, at the appointed hours, three men (including the chaplain who Cesare had befriended) waited for Cesare beneath the keep of La Mota. A rope was let down from the narrow window of the room where he was lodged at the top of the tower. One of his servants went first but the rope was too short and he fell, injuring himself badly. Cesare followed shortly after but the alarm had been sounded and the rope was cut from above. He fell, landing heavily from a great height and he was unable to stand. He had to be carried by the waiting men and lifted into the saddle of the waiting horse. There was no time to rescue the servant who had previously fallen and was badly injured, and so they left the poor man there - he was found shortly after by the guards who executed him there on the spot.

Cesare was unconscious from his fall and completely unable to support himself. Somehow his men kept him on the horse and carried him to the safety of Villanon. They stayed there for a month while Cesare recovered, and set out for Navarre at the end of November.

Cesare Borgia spent the majority of 1503-1505 as a prisoner, locked away while people decided his fate. But yet again he took fate into his own hands, playing the game of politics with the most powerful monarchs of his day, and winning; and achieving the impossible with his escape from La Mota. And as he headed into Navarre at the end of 1505, he was to begin the last stage of his life which he spent free, working as a soldier with his brother in law. He always said that he would prefer to die in the saddle than in bed, and he did so - dying alone on the 12th March, 1507 just three days before the Ides of March which had been so fatal to his namesake and idol, Caesar.

Aut Caesar, Aut Nihil - Either Caesar Or Nothing - a motto which spoke of everything that Cesare Borgia lived, worked and died for.

Further Reading

Sarah Bradford - Cesare Borgia: His Life & Times

Sarah Bradford - Lucrezia Borgia

Mary Hollingsworth - The Borgias

G.J Meyer - The Borgias

Christopher Hibbert - The Borgias & Their Enemies

Clarice Orsini and Lorenzo de Medici

In the spring of 1467 Lorenzo de Medici's mother, Lucrezia Tournabuoni, went to Rome. Using the pretext of an incognito visit to her brother, managers of the Rome branch of the Medici bank, she was actually there to sort out a bride for her son. Her choice fell on the daughter of Jacopo Monterotondo and her trip to Rome was, for all intents and purposes, so she could inspect the girl and make sure she was a suitable match for Lorenzo.

Lucrezia Tournabuoni (the elderly lady on the right) by Domenico Ghirlandaio from a fresco in the Capella Tournabuoni, Florence.

The report that Lucrezia sent back to her husband Piero is rather telling towards attitudes towards marriage at those times:

"She is fairly tall, and fair, and has a nice manner, though she is not as sweet as our girls. She is very modest and will soon learn our customs...Her face is round, but it does not displease me...We could not see her bosom as it is the custom here to wear it completely covered up, but it seems promising."

Following a meeting between Lucrezia and Clarice's family it was noted that she actually had "fine quality breasts"

The marriage was agreed upon and negotiations dragged on for over a year. The Florentine people weren't very happy about the match, and many believed that the Medici thought the local nobility weren't quite good enough for them. But the Orsini family were an old, very noble family. For the first time ever, the Medici were marrying into a class above their own - the Orsini were an old, powerful family in Rome with connections to the Papacy. It was certainly a step up for the Medici. To try and calm the populace, Lorenzo's father tried to arrange a festival to celebrate his sons betrothal but by this point Piero (nicknamed "The Gouty") was far too ill to do anything much and so Lorenzo took charge of organising the festivities. In the end, what he organised was an absolutely spectacular affair and would set the scene for his later ostentation when he took over the reigns of power in Florence.

Clarice Orsini, by Sandro Boticelli

In March 1469, the Piazza Santa Croce was covered with sand and the square itself was surrounded with seating stands for people to watch. In essence, what Lorenzo had organised was a massive joust - a fanfare announced the 18 knights who paraded past the Queen of the Tournament. They were all dressed magnificently but none more so than Lorenzo who stole the show - he took first prize, despite the fact he had already been unseated by one of his opponents. The people of Florence went away from the celebration happy, a fact which Lorenzo learned from in organising later celebrations. The cost of the whole thing ended up costing 8000 florins however, which was 2000 florins more than Clarice's dowry!

Lorenzo de Medici by Agnolo Bronzino

Four months later Clarice arrived in Florence for her wedding, having spent months learning new dances so she would fit in in Florence. And on Sunday 4th June she made her way to the church in Florence dressed in a white and gold gown and she rode on Lorenzo's white horse. Following the religious ceremony, three days of feasting followed and by the end of the celebrations over 300 barrels of wine had been consumed! After the ceremony, Clarice took formal possession of her new home on the Via Larga. As she entered her new home, she was greeted by her new servants and ladies in waiting who by all accounts, weren't too thrilled about having a foreigner take charge of the household.

After she took formal possession of her new household, she rode to the Palazzo degli Alessandri - a palace that was supposed to symbolise the home of her father. 

The following day, she would have moved into the house on the Via Larga properly. And it soon became evident that Lorenzo and Clarice were a complete mismatch. Despite not being the most attractive man in the world, there was something about him that made women go weak at the knees - he spent much of his time writing love sonnets to Lucrezia Donati, and would keep sending love sonnets to other Florentine beauties. He was also said to be quite difficult to live with at times. Clarice herself was quite a frumpy woman and nowhere near akin to the famous Florentine beauties, nor was she hugely intelligent. She was also convinced of her superiority to everyone else due to her family name and she spent much of her time with a somewhat disapproving attitude towards her husband, which for the most part she tried to conceal with various levels of success. Despite this, the couple went on to have ten children, three dying in childbirth, and they ended up becoming rather good friends even if they did not fall in love with each other. Their letters to each other confirm that they were at the very least, fond of each other, and they did their best to put on an outwards show of a normal marriage, albeit a marriage of politics.

Of their ten children, Lorenzo and Clarice would go on to produce the famous Piero de Medici (the Unfortunate) who was chased from Florence by Savonarola, and the future Pope Leo X.

Further Reading

Paul Strathern - The Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance

Christopher Hibbert - The Rise & Fall of the House of Medici

Leonie Frieda - The Deadly Sisterhood